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<title>Forgetting</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Forgetting</span></span>

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</style><table class="infobox infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Forgetting</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">The garden of oblivion, illustration for by <a href="Ephraim_Moses_Lilien" title="Ephraim Moses Lilien">Ephraim Moses Lilr the I</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">Symptoms</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Difficulty in remembering recent events, problems with language, disorientation, mood swings</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Complication_(medicine)" title="Complication (medicine)">Complications</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Dementia" title="Dementia">Dementia</a></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">

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<p><b>Forgetting</b> or <b>disremembering</b> is the apparent loss or modification of information already encoded and stored in an individual's short or <a href="Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">long-term memory</a>. It is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old <a href="Memory" title="Memory">memories</a> are unable to be recalled from memory storage. Problems with remembering, learning and retaining new information are a few of the most common complaints of older adults.<sup id="cite_ref-role_of_forgetting_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-role_of_forgetting-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

Studies show that retention improves with increased rehearsal. This improvement occurs because rehearsal helps to transfer information into long-term memory.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Forgetting_curve" title="Forgetting curve">Forgetting curves</a> (amount remembered as a function of time since an event was first experienced) have been extensively analyzed. The most recent evidence suggests that a <a href="Power_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Power function">power function</a> provides the closest mathematical fit to the forgetting function.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2></div>

<p>Failing to retrieve an event does not mean that this specific event has been forever forgotten. Research has shown that there are a few health behaviors that to some extent can prevent forgetting from happening so often.<sup id="cite_ref-cardio_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cardio-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the simplest ways to keep the brain healthy and prevent forgetting is to stay active and exercise. Staying active is important because overall it keeps the body healthy. When the body is healthy the brain is healthy and less inflamed as well.<sup id="cite_ref-cardio_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cardio-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Older adults who were more active were found to have had less episodes of forgetting compared to those older adults who were less active. A healthy diet can also contribute to a healthier brain and aging process which in turn results in less frequent forgetting.<sup id="cite_ref-cardio_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cardio-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>One of the first to study the mechanisms of forgetting was the German psychologist <a href="Hermann_Ebbinghaus" title="Hermann Ebbinghaus">Hermann Ebbinghaus</a> (1885). Using himself as the sole subject in his experiment, he memorized lists of three letter nonsense syllable words—two consonants and one vowel in the middle. He then measured his own capacity to relearn a given list of words after a variety of given time period. He found that forgetting occurs in a systematic manner, beginning rapidly and then leveling off.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although his methods were primitive, his basic premises have held true today and have been reaffirmed by more methodologically sound methods.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ebbinghaus <i>forgetting curve</i> is the name of his results which he plotted out and made 2 conclusions. The first being that much of what we forget is lost soon after it is originally learned. The second being that the amount of forgetting eventually levels off.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Around the same time Ebbinghaus developed the forgetting curve, psychologist Sigmund Freud theorized that people intentionally forgot things in order to push bad thoughts and feelings deep into their unconscious, a process he called "<a href="Psychological_repression" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological repression">repression</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

There is debate as to whether (or how often) memory repression really occurs<sup id="cite_ref-McNally2004_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNally2004-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and mainstream psychology holds that true memory repression occurs only very rarely.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>One process model for memory was proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in the 1960s as a way to explain the operation of memory. This <a href="Atkinson%E2%80%93Shiffrin_memory_model" title="Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model">modal model of memory</a>, also known as the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory, suggests there are three types of memory: <a href="Sensory_memory" title="Sensory memory">sensory memory</a>, <a href="Short-term_memory" title="Short-term memory">short-term memory</a>, and <a href="Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">long-term memory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each type of memory is separate in its capacity and duration. In the modal model, how quickly information is forgotten is related to the type of memory where that information is stored. Information in the first stage, sensory memory, is forgotten after only a few seconds. In the second stage, short-term memory, information is forgotten after about 20 years. While information in long-term memory can be remembered for minutes or even decades, it may be forgotten when the retrieval processes for that information fail.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Concerning unwanted memories, modern terminology divides <a href="Motivated_forgetting" title="Motivated forgetting">motivated forgetting</a> into unconscious repression (which is disputed) and conscious <a href="Thought_suppression" title="Thought suppression">thought suppression</a>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurements">Measurements</h2></div>

<p>Forgetting can be measured in different ways all of which are based on recall:

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recall">Recall</h3></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">Recall (memory)</a></div>

<p>For this type of measurement, a participant has to <a href="Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">identify material that was previously learned</a>. The participant is asked to remember a list of material. Later on they are shown the same list of material with additional information and they are asked to identify the material that was on the original list. The more they recognize, the less information is forgotten.<sup id="cite_ref-learningandbehavior_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-learningandbehavior-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Free_recall_and_variants">Free recall and variants</h4></div>

<p>Free recall is a basic paradigm used to study human memory. In a free recall task, a subject is presented a list of to-be-remembered items, one at a time. For example, an experimenter might read a list of 20 words aloud, presenting a new word to the subject every 4 seconds. At the end of the presentation of the list, the subject is asked to recall the items (e.g., by writing down as many items from the list as possible). It is called a free recall task because the subject is free to recall the items in any order that he or she desires.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Prompted_(cued)_recall">Prompted (cued) recall</h5></div>

<p>Prompted recall is a slight variation of free recall that consists of presenting hints or prompts to increase the likelihood that the behavior will be produced. Usually these prompts are stimuli that were not there during the training period. Thus in order to measure the degree of forgetting, one can see how many prompts the subject misses or the number of prompts required to produce the behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-learningandbehavior_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-learningandbehavior-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relearning_method">Relearning method</h4></div>

<p>This method measures forgetting by the amount of training required to reach the previous level of performance. German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) used this method on himself. He memorized lists of nonsensical syllables until he could repeat the list two times without error. After a certain interval, he relearned the list and saw how long it would take him to do this task. If it took fewer times, then there had been less forgetting. His experiment was one of the first to study forgetting.<sup id="cite_ref-learningandbehavior_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-learningandbehavior-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Recognition">Recognition</h4></div>

<p>Participants are given a list of words and that they have to remember. Then they are shown the same list of material with additional information and they are asked to identify the material that was on the original list. The more they recognize, the less information is forgotten.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories">Theories</h2></div>

<p>The four main theories of forgetting apparent in the study of psychology are as follows:

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cue-dependent_forgetting">Cue-dependent forgetting</h3></div>

<p><a href="Cue-dependent_forgetting" title="Cue-dependent forgetting">Cue-dependent forgetting</a> (also, <a href="Context-dependent_memory" title="Context-dependent memory">context-dependent forgetting</a>) or retrieval failure, is the failure to recall a <a href="Memory" title="Memory">memory</a> due to missing <a href="Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">stimuli</a> or cues that were present at the time the memory was <a href="Encoding_(memory)" title="Encoding (memory)">encoded</a>. Encoding is the first step in creating and remembering a memory. How well something has been encoded in the memory can be measured by completing specific tests of retrieval. Examples of these tests would be explicit ones like cued recall or implicit tests like word fragment completion.<sup id="cite_ref-memory_encoding_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-memory_encoding-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cue-dependent forgetting is one of five <a href="Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive psychology</a> theories of forgetting. This theory states that a memory is sometimes temporarily forgotten purely because it cannot be retrieved, but the proper cue can bring it to mind. A good <a href="Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphor</a> for this is searching for a book in a library without the <a href="Library_of_Congress_Classification" title="Library of Congress Classification">reference number</a>, title, author or even subject. The information still exists, but without these cues retrieval is unlikely. Furthermore, a good <a href="Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">retrieval</a> cue must be consistent with the original encoding of the information. If the sound of the word is <a href="Emphatic_consonant" title="Emphatic consonant">emphasized</a> during the encoding process, the cue that should be used should also put emphasis on the <a href="Phonetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonetic">phonetic</a> quality of the word. Information is available however, just not readily available without these cues. Depending on the age of a person, retrieval cues and skills may not work as well. This is usually common in older adults but that is not always the case. When information is encoded into the memory and retrieved with a technique called <a href="Spaced_retrieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Spaced retrieval">spaced retrieval</a>, this helps older adults retrieve the events stored in the memory better.<sup id="cite_ref-role_of_forgetting_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-role_of_forgetting-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also evidence from different studies that show <a href="Memory_and_aging" title="Memory and aging">age related changes in memory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-memory_encoding_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-memory_encoding-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These specific studies have shown that <a href="Episodic_memory" title="Episodic memory">episodic memory</a> performance does in fact decline with age and have made known that older adults produce vivid rates of forgetting when two items are combined and not encoded.<sup id="cite_ref-role_of_forgetting_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-role_of_forgetting-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organic_causes">Organic causes</h3></div>

<p>Forgetting that occurs through physiological damage or dilapidation to the brain are referred to as organic causes of forgetting. These theories encompass the loss of information already retained in <a href="Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">long-term memory</a> or the inability to encode new information again. Examples include <a href="Alzheimer's" class="mw-redirect" title="Alzheimer's">Alzheimer's</a>, <a href="Amnesia" title="Amnesia">amnesia</a>, <a href="Dementia" title="Dementia">dementia</a>, consolidation theory and the gradual slowing down of the central nervous system due to <a href="Memory_and_aging" title="Memory and aging">aging</a>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interference_theories">Interference theories</h3></div>

<p><a href="Interference_theory" title="Interference theory">Interference theory</a> refers to the idea that when the learning of something new causes forgetting of older material on the basis of competition between the two. This essentially states that memory's information may become confused or combined with other information during encoding, resulting in the distortion or disruption of memories.<sup id="cite_ref-simply_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-simply-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In nature, the interfering items are said to originate from an overstimulating environment. Interference theory exists in three branches: <b>Proactive, Retroactive and Output</b>. Retroactive and Proactive inhibition each referring in contrast to the other. Retroactive interference is when new information (memories) interferes with older information. On the other hand, proactive interference is when old information interferes with the retrieval of new information.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is sometimes thought to occur especially when memories are similar. Output Interference occurs when the initial act of recalling specific information interferes with the retrieval of the original information. Another reason why retrieval failure occurs is due to encoding failure. The information never made it to long-term memory storage. According to the level of processing theory, how well information is encoded depends on the level of processing a piece of information receives. Certain parts of information are better encoded than others; for example, information this visual imagery or that has a survival value is more easily transferred to the long-term memory storage.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This theory shows a contradiction: an extremely intelligent individual is expected to forget more hastily than one who has a slow mentality. For this reason, an intelligent individual has stored up more memory in his mind which will cause interferences and impair their ability to recall specific information.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on current research, testing interference has only been carried out by recalling from a list of words rather than using situation from daily lives, thus it is hard to generalize the findings for this theory.<sup id="cite_ref-simply_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-simply-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

It has been found that interference related tasks decreased memory performance by up to 20%, with negative effects at all interference time points and large variability between participants concerning both the time point and the size of maximal interference. Furthermore, fast learners seem to be more affected by interference than slow learners.<sup id="cite_ref-Sosic-Vasic_Hille_Kröner_et_al_2018_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sosic-Vasic_Hille_Kröner_et_al_2018-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People are also less likely to recall items when intervening stimuli are presented within the first ten minutes after learning. Recall performance is better without interference.<sup id="cite_ref-Sosic-Vasic_Hille_Kröner_et_al_2018_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sosic-Vasic_Hille_Kröner_et_al_2018-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peripheral processes such as encoding time, recognition memory and motor execution decline with age. However proactive interference is similar. Suggesting contrary to earlier reports that the inhibitory processes observed with this paradigm remain intact in older adults.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trace_decay_theory">Trace decay theory</h3></div>

<p><a href="Decay_theory" title="Decay theory">Decay theory</a> states that when something new is learned, a neurochemical, physical "memory trace" is formed in the brain and over time this trace tends to disintegrate, unless it is occasionally used. Decay theory states the reason we eventually forget something or an event is because the memory of it fades with time. If we do not attempt to look back at an event, the greater the interval time between the time when the event from happening and the time when we try to remember, the memory will start to fade. Time is the greatest impact in remembering an event.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Trace decay theory explains memories that are stored in both short-term and long-term memory system, and assumes that the memories leave a trace in the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-simply_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-simply-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to this theory, short-term memory (STM) can only retain information for a limited amount of time, around 15 to 30 seconds unless it is rehearsed. If it is not rehearsed, the information will start to gradually fade away and decay. Donald Hebb proposed that incoming information causes a series of neurons to create a neurological memory trace in the brain which would result in change in the morphological and/or chemical changes in the brain and would fade with time. Repeated firing causes a structural change in the synapses. Rehearsal of repeated firing maintains the memory in STM until a structural change is made. Therefore, forgetting happens as a result of automatic decay of the memory trace in brain. This theory states that the events between learning and recall have no effects on recall; the important factor that affects is the duration that the information has been retained. Hence, as longer time passes more of traces are subject to decay and as a result the information is forgotten.

</p><p>One major problem about this theory is that in real-life situation, the time between encoding a piece of information and recalling it, is going to be filled with all different kinds of events that might happen to the individual. Therefore, it is difficult to conclude that forgetting is a result of only the time duration. It is also important to consider the effectiveness of this theory. Although it seems very plausible, it is about impossible to test. It is difficult to create a situation where there is a blank period of time between presenting the material and recalling it later.<sup id="cite_ref-simply_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-simply-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>This theory is supposedly contradicted by the fact that one is able to ride a bike even after not having done so for decades. "<a href="Flashbulb_memories" class="mw-redirect" title="Flashbulb memories">Flashbulb memories</a>" are another piece of seemingly contradicting evidence. It is believed that certain memories "trace decay" while others do not. Sleep is believed to play a key role in halting trace decay, although the exact mechanism of this is unknown.

</p><p>Physical and chemical changes in our brain lead to a memory trace, and this is based on the idea of the trace theory of memory. Information that gets into our short-term memory lasts a few seconds (15–20 seconds), and it fades away if it is not rehearsed or practiced as the neurochemical memory trace disappears rapidly. According to the trace decay theory of forgetting, what occurs between the creation of new memories and the recall of these memories is not influenced by the recall. However, the time between these events (memory formation and recalling) decides whether the information can be kept or forgotten. As there is an inverse correlation that if the time is short, more information can be recalled. On the other hand, if the time is long less information can be recalled or more information will be forgotten. This theory can be criticized for not sharing ideas on how some memories can stay and others can fade, though there was a long time between the formation and recall. Newness to something plays a crucial role in this situation. For instance, people are more likely to recall their very first day abroad than all of the intervening days between it and living there. Emotions also play a crucial role in this situation.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impairments_and_lack_of_forgetting">Impairments and lack of forgetting</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Memory_disorder" title="Memory disorder">Memory disorder</a></div>

<p>Forgetting can have very different causes than simply removal of stored content. Forgetting can mean access problems, availability problems, or can have other reasons such as <a href="Amnesia" title="Amnesia">amnesia</a> caused by an accident.

</p><p>An inability to forget can cause distress, as with <a href="Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">post-traumatic stress disorder</a> and <a href="Hyperthymesia" title="Hyperthymesia">hyperthymesia</a> (in which people have an extremely detailed <a href="Autobiographical_memory" title="Autobiographical memory">autobiographical memory</a>).

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_forgetting">Social forgetting</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Social_amnesia" title="Social amnesia">Social amnesia</a></div>

<p>Psychologists have called attention to "social aspects of forgetting".<sup id="cite_ref-social_aspects_of_forgetting_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-social_aspects_of_forgetting-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though often loosely defined, <a href="Social_amnesia" title="Social amnesia">social amnesia</a> is generally considered to be the opposite of <a href="Collective_memory" title="Collective memory">collective memory</a>. "Social amnesia" was first discussed by <a href="Russell_Jacoby" title="Russell Jacoby">Russell Jacoby</a>, yet his use of the term was restricted to a narrow approach, which was limited to what he perceived to be a relative neglect of psychoanalytical theory in psychology. The cultural historian <a href="Peter_Burke_(historian)" title="Peter Burke (historian)">Peter Burke</a> suggested that "it may be worth investigating the social organization of forgetting, the rules of exclusion, suppression or repression, and the question of who wants whom to forget what".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an in-depth historical study spanning two centuries, <a href="Guy_Beiner" title="Guy Beiner">Guy Beiner</a> proposed the term "social forgetting", which he distinguished from crude notions of "collective amnesia" and "total oblivion", arguing that "social forgetting is to be found in the interface of public silence and more private remembrance".<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The philosopher <a href="Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Walter Benjamin</a> sees social forgetting closely linked to the question of present-day interests, arguing that "every image of the past that is not recognized by the present as one of its own concerns threatens to disappear irretrievably".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Building on this, the sociologist David Leupold argued in the context of competing national narratives that what is suppressed and forgotten in one national narrative "might appear at the core of past narrations by the other" - thus often leading to diametrically opposed, mutually exclusive accounts on the past.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ul><li><a href="Amnesia" title="Amnesia">Amnesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Cue-dependent_forgetting" title="Cue-dependent forgetting">Cue-dependent forgetting</a></li>

<li><a href="Experience_curve_effects" title="Experience curve effects">Experience curve effects</a></li>

<li><a href="Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Educational psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperthymesia" title="Hyperthymesia">Hyperthymesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_attrition" title="Language attrition">Language attrition</a></li>

<li><a href="Lotus_tree" title="Lotus tree">Lotus tree</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Pseudodementia" title="Pseudodementia">Pseudodementia</a></li>

<li><a href="Repressed_memory" title="Repressed memory">Repressed memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Tip_of_the_tongue" title="Tip of the tongue">Tip of the tongue</a></li>

<li><a href="Unethical_amnesia" title="Unethical amnesia">Unethical amnesia</a></li></ul>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFArchambeauForstmannVan_MaanenGevers2020" class="citation journal cs1">Archambeau, Kim; Forstmann, Birte; Van Maanen, Leendert; Gevers, Wim (February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7000511">"Proactive interference in aging: A model-based study"</a>. <i>Psychonomic Bulletin & Review</i>. <b>27</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">130–</span>138. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3758%2Fs13423-019-01671-0">10.3758/s13423-019-01671-0</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7000511">7000511</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31797260">31797260</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:208620951">208620951</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psychologyandsociety.com/Decaytheory.html">"The Decay Theory of Forgetting"</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRickerVergauweCowan2016" class="citation journal cs1">Ricker, Timothy J.; Vergauwe, Evie; Cowan, Nelson (October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4241183">"Decay Theory of Immediate Memory: From Brown (1958) to Today (2014)"</a>. <i>Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology</i>. <b>69</b> (10): <span class="nowrap">1969–</span>1995. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17470218.2014.914546">10.1080/17470218.2014.914546</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4241183">4241183</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24853316">24853316</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-social_aspects_of_forgetting-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-social_aspects_of_forgetting_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHirstYamashiro2018" class="citation cs2">Hirst, William; Yamashiro, Jeremy K. (2018), "Social Aspects of Forgetting", in Meade, M.L.; et al. (eds.), <i>Collaborative Remembering: Theories, Research, and Applications</i>, Oxford University Press, pp. <span class="nowrap">76–</span>99</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBurke1989" class="citation cs2">Burke, Peter (1989), "History as Social Memory", in Butler, Thomas (ed.), <i>Memory: History, Culture and the Mind</i>, Blackwell, pp. <span class="nowrap">97–</span>113</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBeiner2018" class="citation book cs1">Beiner, Guy (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/forgetful-remembrance-9780198749356?"><i>Forgetful Remembrance: Social Forgetting and Vernacular Historiography of a Rebellion in Ulster</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-874935-6</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBenjaminc._1986" class="citation book cs1">Benjamin, Walter (c. 1986) [1968]. <i>Illuminations</i>. Hannah Arendt, Harry Zohn. New York: Schocken Books. p. 255. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-8052-0241-2</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/12947710">12947710</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLeupold2020" class="citation book cs1">Leupold, David (2020). <i>Embattled dreamlands: the politics of contesting Armenian, Kurdish and Turkish memory</i>. New York: Routledge. p. 9 page. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-429-34415-2</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1130319782">1130319782</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFWixted2004" class="citation journal cs1">Wixted, John T. (February 2004). "The Psychology and Neuroscience of Forgetting". <i>Annual Review of Psychology</i>. <b>55</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">235–</span>269. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.psych.55.090902.141555">10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141555</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14744216">14744216</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3057114">3057114</a>.</cite></li>

<li>McLeod, S. A. (2008). Simply Psychology; . Retrieved 19 February 2012, from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.simplypsychology.org/forgetting.html">Simply Psychology</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Forgetting" class="extiw external" title="q:Special:Search/Forgetting">Forgetting</a></b></i>.</div></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/forgetting" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:forgetting">forgetting</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130213102717/http://cle.ens-lyon.fr/79834309/0/fiche___pagelibre/&RH=CDL_ANG100100">The End of Forgetting</a> An article by Jeffrey Rosen</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scienceaid.co.uk/psychology/cognition/forgetting.html">Forgetting: High School Psychology</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080615001242/http://www.educationguideonline.net/forgetting-and-learning/">Causes of Forgetting & Learning</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/trying-to-forget/">Forgetting is Key to a Healthy Mind</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Human_memory558" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Human_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Human memory">Human memory</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Encoding_(memory)" title="Encoding (memory)">Encoding</a></li>

<li><a href="Storage_(memory)" title="Storage (memory)">Storage</a></li>

<li><a href="Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">Recall</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_consolidation" title="Memory consolidation">Consolidation</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroanatomy_of_memory" title="Neuroanatomy of memory">Neuroanatomy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Sensory_memory" title="Sensory memory">Sensory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Echoic_memory" title="Echoic memory">Echoic</a></li>

<li><a href="Eidetic_memory" title="Eidetic memory">Eidetic</a></li>

<li><a href="Eyewitness_memory" title="Eyewitness memory">Eyewitness</a></li>

<li><a href="Haptic_memory" title="Haptic memory">Haptic</a></li>

<li><a href="Iconic_memory" title="Iconic memory">Iconic</a></li>

<li><a href="Motor_learning" title="Motor learning">Motor learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_memory" title="Visual memory">Visual</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Short-term_memory" title="Short-term memory">Short-term</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>"<a href="The_Magical_Number_Seven%2C_Plus_or_Minus_Two" title="The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two">The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two</a>"</li>

<li><a href="Working_memory" title="Working memory">Working memory</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">Long-term</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Active_recall" class="mw-redirect" title="Active recall">Active recall</a></li>

<li><a href="Autobiographical_memory" title="Autobiographical memory">Autobiographical</a></li>

<li><a href="Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">Explicit</a>

<ul><li><a href="Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">Declarative</a></li>

<li><a href="Episodic_memory" title="Episodic memory">Episodic</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_memory" title="Semantic memory">Semantic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Flashbulb_memory" title="Flashbulb memory">Flashbulb</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperthymesia" title="Hyperthymesia">Hyperthymesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Implicit_memory" title="Implicit memory">Implicit</a></li>

<li><a href="Meaningful_learning" title="Meaningful learning">Meaningful learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Personal-event_memory" title="Personal-event memory">Personal-event</a></li>

<li><a href="Procedural_memory" title="Procedural memory">Procedural</a></li>

<li><a href="Rote_learning" title="Rote learning">Rote learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Selective_retention" title="Selective retention">Selective retention</a></li>

<li><a href="Tip_of_the_tongue" title="Tip of the tongue">Tip of the tongue</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Amnesia" title="Amnesia">Amnesia</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anterograde_amnesia" title="Anterograde amnesia">anterograde</a></li>

<li><a href="Childhood_amnesia" title="Childhood amnesia">childhood</a></li>

<li><a href="Posthypnotic_amnesia" title="Posthypnotic amnesia">post-hypnotic</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-traumatic_amnesia" title="Post-traumatic amnesia">post-traumatic</a></li>

<li><a href="Dissociative_amnesia" title="Dissociative amnesia">dissociative (psychogenic)</a></li>

<li><a href="Retrograde_amnesia" title="Retrograde amnesia">retrograde</a></li>

<li><a href="Selective_amnesia" title="Selective amnesia">selective</a></li>

<li><a href="Transient_global_amnesia" title="Transient global amnesia">transient global</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Decay_theory" title="Decay theory">Decay theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Forgetting_curve" title="Forgetting curve">Forgetting curve</a></li>

<li><a href="Interference_theory" title="Interference theory">Interference theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_erasure" title="Memory erasure">Memory erasure</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_inhibition" title="Memory inhibition">Memory inhibition</a></li>

<li><a href="Motivated_forgetting" title="Motivated forgetting">Motivated forgetting</a>

<ul><li><a href="Experiential_avoidance" title="Experiential avoidance">avoidance</a></li>

<li><a href="Repression_(psychoanalysis)" title="Repression (psychoanalysis)">repression</a></li>

<li><a href="Thought_suppression" title="Thought suppression">suppression</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Repressed_memory" title="Repressed memory">Repressed memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Retrieval-induced_forgetting" title="Retrieval-induced forgetting">Retrieval-induced forgetting</a></li>

<li><a href="Weapon_focus" title="Weapon focus">Weapon focus</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Memory_error" title="Memory error">Memory errors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Confabulation" title="Confabulation">Confabulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptomnesia" title="Cryptomnesia">Cryptomnesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight bias</a></li>

<li><a href="Imagination_inflation" title="Imagination inflation">Imagination inflation</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_memory_biases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of memory biases">Memory biases</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li>

<li><a href="Misattribution_of_memory" title="Misattribution of memory">Misattribution of memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Misinformation_effect" title="Misinformation effect">Misinformation effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Source-monitoring_error" title="Source-monitoring error">Source-monitoring error</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="False_memory" title="False memory">False memory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Deese%E2%80%93Roediger%E2%80%93McDermott_paradigm" title="Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm">Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm</a></li>

<li><a href="False_memory_syndrome" title="False memory syndrome">False memory syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_implantation" title="Memory implantation">Memory implantation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Lost_in_the_mall_technique" title="Lost in the mall technique">Lost in the mall technique</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Recovered-memory_therapy" title="Recovered-memory therapy">Recovered-memory therapy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Methods_used_to_study_memory" title="Methods used to study memory">Research methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Exceptional_memory" title="Exceptional memory">Exceptional memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Indirect_tests_of_memory" title="Indirect tests of memory">Indirect tests of memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_disorder" title="Memory disorder">Memory disorder</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Collective_memory" title="Collective memory">Collective memory</a>

<ul><li><a href="Politics_of_memory" title="Politics of memory">Politics of memory</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_memory" title="Cultural memory">Cultural memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_and_social_interactions" title="Memory and social interactions">Memory and social interactions</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li>

<li><a href="Transactive_memory" title="Transactive memory">Transactive memory</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Memory_and_aging" title="Memory and aging">Aging</a></li>

<li><a href="Art_of_memory" title="Art of memory">Art of memory</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chunking_(psychology)" title="Chunking (psychology)">chunking</a></li>

<li><a href="Elaborative_encoding" title="Elaborative encoding">encoding</a></li>

<li><a href="Memorization" title="Memorization">memorization</a></li>

<li><a href="Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_rehearsal" title="Memory rehearsal">rehearsal</a></li>

<li><a href="Spaced_repetition" title="Spaced repetition">repetition</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_alcohol_on_memory" title="Effects of alcohol on memory">Effects of alcohol</a></li>

<li><a href="Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise#Memory" title="Neurobiological effects of physical exercise">Effects of exercise</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_stress_on_memory" title="Effects of stress on memory">Effects of stress</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotion_and_memory" title="Emotion and memory">Emotion</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_improvement" title="Memory improvement">Memory improvement</a></li>

<li><a href="Nutrition_and_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrition and memory">Nutrition</a></li>

<li><a href="Sleep_and_memory" title="Sleep and memory">Sleep</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_and_trauma" title="Memory and trauma">Trauma</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Memory_sport" title="Memory sport">Memory sport</a>

<ul><li><a href="World_Memory_Championships" title="World Memory Championships">World Memory Championships</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Shas_Pollak" title="Shas Pollak">Shas Pollak</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Absent-mindedness" title="Absent-mindedness">Absent-mindedness</a></li>

<li><a href="Atkinson%E2%80%93Shiffrin_memory_model" title="Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model">Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model</a></li>

<li><a href="Context-dependent_memory" title="Context-dependent memory">Context-dependent</a> and <a href="State-dependent_memory" title="State-dependent memory">state-dependent</a> memory</li>

<li><a href="Childhood_memory" title="Childhood memory">Childhood memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Exosomatic_memory" title="Exosomatic memory">Exosomatic memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_recall" title="Free recall">Free recall</a></li>

<li><a href="Intermediate-term_memory" title="Intermediate-term memory">Intermediate-term memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Involuntary_memory" title="Involuntary memory">Involuntary memory</a>

<ul><li><a href="Flashback_(psychology)" title="Flashback (psychology)">flashbacks</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Levels_of_Processing_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Levels of Processing model">Levels of Processing model</a></li>

<li><a href="Metamemory" title="Metamemory">Metamemory</a></li>

<li><a href="Muscle_memory" title="Muscle memory">Muscle memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Priming_(psychology)" title="Priming (psychology)">Priming</a>

<ul><li><a href="Intertrial_priming" title="Intertrial priming">intertrial</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Prospective_memory" title="Prospective memory">Prospective</a> and <a href="Retrospective_memory" title="Retrospective memory">retrospective</a> memory</li>

<li><i><a href="The_Seven_Sins_of_Memory" title="The Seven Sins of Memory">The Seven Sins of Memory</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Researchers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Richard_C._Atkinson" title="Richard C. Atkinson">Richard C. Atkinson</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_A._Bjork" title="Robert A. Bjork">Robert A. Bjork</a></li>

<li><a href="Stephen_J._Ceci" title="Stephen J. Ceci">Stephen J. Ceci</a></li>

<li><a href="Susan_Clancy" title="Susan Clancy">Susan Clancy</a></li>

<li><a href="Hermann_Ebbinghaus" title="Hermann Ebbinghaus">Hermann Ebbinghaus</a></li>

<li><a href="Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li>

<li><a href="Patricia_Goldman-Rakic" title="Patricia Goldman-Rakic">Patricia Goldman-Rakic</a></li>

<li><a href="Ivan_Izquierdo" title="Ivan Izquierdo">Ivan Izquierdo</a></li>

<li><a href="Marcia_K._Johnson" title="Marcia K. Johnson">Marcia K. Johnson</a></li>

<li><a href="Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a></li>

<li><a href="Elizabeth_Loftus" title="Elizabeth Loftus">Elizabeth Loftus</a></li>

<li><a href="Geoffrey_Loftus" title="Geoffrey Loftus">Geoffrey Loftus</a></li>

<li><a href="James_McGaugh" title="James McGaugh">James McGaugh</a></li>

<li><a href="Eleanor_Maguire" title="Eleanor Maguire">Eleanor Maguire</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George Armitage Miller</a></li>

<li><a href="Brenda_Milner" title="Brenda Milner">Brenda Milner</a></li>

<li><a href="Lynn_Nadel" title="Lynn Nadel">Lynn Nadel</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_L._Roediger_III" title="Henry L. Roediger III">Henry L. Roediger III</a></li>

<li><a href="Daniel_Schacter" title="Daniel Schacter">Daniel Schacter</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Shiffrin" title="Richard Shiffrin">Richard Shiffrin</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_P._Shimamura" title="Arthur P. Shimamura">Arthur P. Shimamura</a></li>

<li><a href="Larry_Squire" title="Larry Squire">Larry Squire</a></li>

<li><a href="Susumu_Tonegawa" title="Susumu Tonegawa">Susumu Tonegawa</a></li>

<li><a href="Anne_Treisman" title="Anne Treisman">Anne Treisman</a></li>

<li><a href="Endel_Tulving" title="Endel Tulving">Endel Tulving</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Stickgold" title="Robert Stickgold">Robert Stickgold</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Patients</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Clive_Wearing" title="Clive Wearing">Clive Wearing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Jonathan_Hancock" title="Jonathan Hancock">Jonathan Hancock</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_R._McHugh" title="Paul R. McHugh">Paul R. McHugh</a></li>

<li><a href="Dominic_O'Brien" title="Dominic O'Brien">Dominic O'Brien</a></li>

<li><a href="Ben_Pridmore" title="Ben Pridmore">Ben Pridmore</a></li>

<li><a href="Cosmos_Rossellius" title="Cosmos Rossellius">Cosmos Rossellius</a></li>

<li><a href="Andriy_Slyusarchuk" title="Andriy Slyusarchuk">Andriy Slyusarchuk</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><span class="skin-invert-image noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span> </span><a href="Portal%3APsychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li>

<li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span> </span><a href="Portal%3APhilosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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